Resistance and Resilience (1000-1700 CE)

Class 09 Social Science

The period between 1000 CE and 1700 CE witnessed profound political, social, and cultural changes. The Indian subcontinent experienced repeated invasions and wars accompanied by religious discrimination and social distress.

Regional powers frequently resisted invaders who were making inroads into their territories. This resistance took both military and cultural forms.

Resilience refers to the capacity to, survive and adapt in challenging situations, including times of political unrest and instability. It is also about how communities and groups across diverse regions respond to challenges and opportunities. This capacity to absorb and adapt to hardship while preserving inherited socio-cultural and spiritual traditions can also be understood as resilience. The idea of India’s resilient spirit extends beyond political and military spheres.

Resistance means actively opposing or challenging a force, authority, or threat in order to protect political power, territory, interests, or cultural and spiritual identity. Resistance may take the form of warfare, alliances, diplomacy, negotiation, or other political actions.

Rajput Dynasties (1200-1500 CE)

The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 was a turning point in Indian history. The new state introduced administrative practices that led to greater centralisation of authority. For example, the iqta system, under which territories were assigned to military commanders in lieu of salaries, became a mechanism for land revenue collection and a system that increased the burden on the peasantry. Furthermore, during their military campaigns for territorial expansion, the forces of the Sultanate demolished sites sacred to the local communities. This led to stiff resistance from several kingdoms and chieftains.

Therefore, resistance throughout the Delhi Sultanate was fuelled by both political factors and the determination to preserve socio-cultural continuity. For instance, the Yādava dynasty of western Deccan (Devagiri), several Rajput dynasties of present-day Rajasthan, the Kākatīya rulers of eastern Deccan (Warangal), and the Hoysālas of present-day Karnataka repeatedly resisted the Sultans of Delhi. These states played an important role in checking the expansion of the Sultanate.

Over the years and under different Sultans, the Delhi Sultanate faced opposition and defiance from several states and regions including Mewar, Gwalior, Malwa, Awadh, Etawah, Ajmer, Jalore, Kalinjar, and Kannauj.

Rajput-Mughal Dynamics (1500-1700 CE)

In the early 1500s, the weakening and subsequent decline of the Delhi Sultanate under its last ruler, Ibrāhim Lodī, opened the door to two parallel developments. First, Zahiruddin Muhammad, also known as Bābur, from Central Asia launched an invasion on India. Second, Indian rulers began to assert their own authority. In 1526, Bābur defeated the Lodi forces in the First Battle of Panipat, bringing the Sultanate to an end. In 1527, Rāṇā Sangrām Singh I, popularly known as Rāṇā Sāngā, of Mewar led a Rajput confederacy against Bābur in the Battle of Khanua. The battle ended in favour of Bābur and is seen as an important turning point in Indian history.

As Mughal rule consolidated its power, relations between the Rajputs and the Mughals evolved over time, shaped by strategic considerations. Some Rajput kingdoms such as Mewar, maintained stiff resistance to Mughal authority, while others like the Kachhwāha Rajputs of Amber, negotiated cooperative relationships. The Mughals, for their part, had a strong incentive to collaborate with the Rajputs - they needed the Rajputs’ military might, their loyalty as well as their administrative strength to consolidate and stabilise the Mughal Empire. Towards this end, the Mughals integrated some of the Rajputs into the empire through the grant of mansabs and other understandings.

Mewar's Resistance against Mughals

Akbar attacked the kingdom of Mewar and laid siege to the fort at Chittor in 1567–1568. The Mughal army paid a heavy price in the campaign. Under Rāṇā Udai Singh, the Rajputs put up a stiff resistance for more than five months before the fort was captured by the Mughals. By this time, Akbar had already concluded several successful campaigns and the empire was at the peak of its power. In a strategic move, Rāṇā Udai Singh retreated to the Aravalli Hills along with a large number of his subjects.

In 1576, Akbar launched another attack on Mewar. This time, Mahārāṇā Pratāp, the son and successor of Rāṇā Udai Singh, fought against Mughal forces in the Battle of Haldighati. Continuing his fierce resistance, Mahārāṇā Pratāp modified his military strategy and adopted guerrilla warfare. He used the rugged Aravalli terrain to his advantage and conducted surprise attacks, raids, and ambushes on the Mughal forces and their networks. He continued to resist and eventually reclaimed most of his ancestral territories in the 1580s.

The Battle of Dewair fought near Udaipur in 1582 was significant as it resulted in the collapse of key Mughal military outposts in Mewar and helped Mahārāṇā Pratāp reclaim control over Mewar.

Mahārāṇā Pratāp’s son and successor, Mahārāṇā Amar Singh, continued Mewar’s tradition of military resistance against the Mughals. Jahāngīr made military advances towards Mewar in 1605, 1608, and 1609. But each attempt was countered by a strong and organised resistance from the Rajputs. Eventually, the Mughals were compelled to acknowledge Mewar’s distinct political position.

Ahom Kingdom

The Ahom kingdom of Assam maintained its political independence for almost six centuries (1228-1826) and successfully resisted several invasions and attempts at annexation. The military strategy of the Ahoms relied on exploiting the local terrain rather than engaging in direct confrontation.

Ahom commanders possessed detailed knowledge of Assam’s forests, river systems, and monsoon cycles, which invading forces generally lacked. Despite repeated attempts by the Mughals to annex the Brahmaputra valley, the Ahoms successfully defended their territories against Mughal invasion.

The first Ahom-Mughal clash took place in 1615 near Samdhara. Mughal forces under Abu Bakr made early gains but were soon compelled to retreat. By 1616, the Ahoms had recovered the lost territory, setting a pattern that would recur over the next sixty years. In 1662, Mīr Jumlā captured the Ahom capital, Garhgaon. Subsequently, a treaty was imposed on King Jayadhvaj Singha. However, the king defied the Mughals and renounced the treaty within a year of the Mughal withdrawal, and the Ahoms retained their independence.

A decisive check on Mughal ambitions in the region came in 1671, when the Ahom commander Lachit Borphukan defeated a Mughal fleet at the Battle of Saraighat, securing the Brahmaputra as an effective territorial boundary. The Ahoms’ successful resistance against the might of the Mughal empire is a remarkable story of bravery, pride, and endurance.

Ahom endurance rested on a combination of strategic alliance-building, guerrilla tactics, Assam’s challenging geography, and the Paik system of military-administrative organisation. The Ahom navy also played a key role, using light, fast boats, called bāchārī, built specifically for river warfare, which gave them an advantage over Mughal fleets.

Vijayanagara Empire

In the Deccan and beyond, the expanding campaigns of the Delhi Sultanate steadily weakened the older kingdoms of the south. Malik Kāfūr, Alauddin Khiljī’s general, attacked major cities and temples, including those at Warangal, Belur, and Madurai. Later, Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s rise to power extended the Sultanate’s influence even farther south, ultimately contributing to the decline of the Pandya Kingdom and the eventual emergence of a new sultanate territory known as the Madurai Sultanate.

It was against this backdrop that the Vijayanagara Empire rose in 1336 to check the expansion of the Sultanate into peninsular India. Harihara and Bukkā established the independent kingdom of Vijayanagara located near present-day Hampi, Karnataka. The region’s geography, including a formidable river and rugged, rocky terrain, provided Vijayanagara with a strong natural defence and a secure base for military operations. They made determined efforts to defend and expand their state’s frontiers.

The empire gradually expanded by annexing territory south of the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and became one of the richest and most influential states, encouraging the flourishing of literature in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit. Vijayanagara’s capital city became a centre of trade, culture, and political power in southern India.

During Bukkā’s reign, Vijayanagara made major territorial gains, including the subjugation of the Madurai Sultanate and the annexation of Arcot. In 1342, the ageing Hoysāla king Vīra Ballāla III fought the Madurai Sultanate, resulting in the Battle of Kannanur, which was a pivotal episode in this struggle. However, the Sultan launched a surprise counter-attack and executed the Hoysāla ruler.

For almost four decades, Vijayanagara wrestled with the Sultans of Madurai. Later, the campaign against Madurai Sultanate was led by Kumāra Kampana, the son of Bukkā. He killed the Sultan and brought the Sultanate of Madurai to an end. Kumāra Kampana also reinstated the divine images in the Rajasimheshwara Temple at Kanchipuram and the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam.

Decades later, the Vijayanagara army was defeated at the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by an alliance of the Deccan sultanates. In the aftermath, the city of Vijayanagara was sacked and largely abandoned, while the empire gradually fragmented. Several of its territories came under the rule of smaller Nāyaka kingdoms.

Marathas

The Marathas were a formidable force in the Deccan particularly during the 17th and 18th centuries. The establishment of an independent Maratha state in 1674 is closely associated with the rise of Chhatrapati Śhivājī. The Marathas had been involved in the region’s political affairs for centuries. Their knowledge of the Deccan’s complex geography and landscape, along with their bravery and martial abilities, made them a formidable force in both administrative and military affairs.

Over time, the Marathas emerged as a prominent political and military force in India. In the Maratha state, territorial control and sovereignty were closely linked to the idea of swarājya, or self-rule. Chhatrapati Śhivājī is regarded as one of the earliest proponents of the spirit of Swarājya - the idea of an independent, self-governing territory free from external control.

The Marathas fought many battles against the Mughals and other powers. The prolonged warfare exhausted the Mughal Empire economically and politically, to the point that Aurangzeb spent more than two decades in the Deccan in an attempt to control the region and subdue Maratha resistance.

As political boundaries shifted constantly, the Marathas relied on strategic alliances to extend their control over diverse territories. Through these alliances, they built a vast network of tributary relationships that extended their influence far beyond the areas under their direct rule. The key to the success of the Marathas was their bravery and military skills.

The Marathas strategically built forts such as Raigad and Sinhagad which played a crucial role in resistance against the Mughals. The Maratha territories were characterised by hills and deep valleys. Maratha forts, therefore, functioned as strategic nuclei for guerrilla warfare. This network of forts enabled the Marathas to launch swift attacks from different directions and provided safe retreats.

Different types of forts were constructed to serve distinct purposes, and while some functioned as advanced outposts, those on the frontiers served as fallback capitals to avoid total defeat. Many formed part of the wider defensive network, and most were designed to withstand prolonged sieges. Forts also served as centres of administration and judicial authority. Strong defences, water sources, and armouries provided resilience and self-sufficiency, enabling the Marathas to sustain prolonged resistance during sieges.

Sikhs

A major spiritual movement was founded by Guru Nānak in the late 15th century which later came to be known as Sikhism. It emphasised devotion to one God, social equality, and the rejection of rituals. Under Guru Nānak and his successors, the Sikh community expanded and flourished across the subcontinent, particularly in the Punjab, Sindh, and Gangetic plains. During this period, Punjab was largely under the Lodī Sultans and later under the Mughals. It was a fertile, densely populated region, with a large peasant population.

Due to the growing socio-cultural influence of the Sikh Gurus, the Mughal state increasingly intervened in their affairs from the beginning of the 17th century. As the Guru’s influence was increasing, Jahāngīr ordered the execution of Guru Arjan Dev (the fifth Sikh guru) on the pretext of the Guru’s alleged support to Jahāngīr’s rebellious son, Khusrau Mirza. The martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev marked a significant turning point in the history of the Sikhs and contributed to a gradual shift in their organisational and political orientation.

Later, Guru Hargobind (the sixth Sikh Guru) was detained by Jahāngīr in Gwalior Fort. During this period, the Sikhs visited Gwalior in large numbers and paid their respects to the Guru from outside the fortress.

In 1675, Aurangzeb ordered the execution of Guru Tegh Bahādur, the ninth Sikh Guru. The martyrdom proved a turning point in Indian history. The brutality of the Mughal state against the Sikh Gurus particularly Guru Arjan Dev, Guru Tegh Bahādur, and the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh has few comparisons in history. The valour and sacrifice of the Gurus for the cause of the faith became the defining features of Sikhism. Beyond political motivations, the act was also deeply rooted in the rigid religious and discriminatory practices of the Mughals.

The martyrdom of the Sikh Gurus to uphold their faith and principles firmed the conviction of the Sikhs that persecution had to be met with firm resistance and resilience. Such persecution and political pressure could only be countered through collective organisation, and armed resistance as and when required.

Many armed conflicts took place between the Sikhs and the Mughals. Guru Hargobind established the Akāl Takht, a seat of temporal authority, to administer justice and address matters of governance. Scholars suggest that the establishment of the Akāl Takht was intended, in part, to counter Mughal political dominance.

The concept of mīrī-pīrī became vital in this context, representing the Guru’s authority over both spiritual (pīrī) and worldly (mīrī) affairs. In Amritsar, the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) represented spiritual authority (pīrī), while temporal power (mīrī) was represented by the Akāl Takht. In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh established and developed a Sikh order known as the Khalsa. The Khalsa adopted a distinct martial code in response to the changing socio-political environment. Through this process, spiritual identity became closely intertwined with the pursuit of political identity.

Due to sustained Mughal hostility, including the execution of Guru Gobind Singh’s sons, the Sikhs organised themselves into armed groups known as misals to defend themselves and the territories through military and administrative structures. In this process, many people from peasant communities became soldiers and fought against Mughals in Punjab.

Jat Resistance

During the 17th century, the Jats, a farming community from Ganga-Yamuna Doab were burdened with heavy taxes and exploitation by Mughals. These economic hardships combined with Aurangzeb’s religious policies led to growing resentment amongst the Jats. In 1669, under the leadership of Gokul Jat, they rebelled against the Mughal Empire. Mughal forces struggled for many months to suppress the uprising.

However, the Jats continued their resistance. In 1686, they took advantage of Aurangzeb’s prolonged military campaigns in the Deccan and rebelled once again under the leadership of the zamindars of Sinsani and Sogar. The Mughals sent several armies to suppress the rebellion, leading to a long and fierce struggle in which both sides suffered heavy losses. By 1691, the Mughals had gained the upper hand. Yet, the Jat resistance continued.