State and Society up to 1000 CE

Class 09 Social Science

from at least the second millennium BCE, we begin to find literary sources - the Ṛig Veda being the earliest - that supplement archaeological evidence and provide insights into the social, political, cultural, and moral dimensions of the past.

Vedic Period

Vedic texts are often used by historians and other scholars to learn about the times and geographies in which they were composed. For instance, the earliest sections of the Ṛig Veda were composed in the region known as Sapta–Sindhu - including the Indus River, its five tributaries, and the Sarasvatī.

early Vedic society was organised into janas, or clans. These were groups of people bound by kinship ties. The Ṛig Veda alone mentions about thirty janas, five of which - the Yadu, Turvaśha, Puru, Anu, and Druhyu - were collectively known as the pañchajana (‘five peoples’).

During this period, the rājā functioned primarily as a clan chief who led the group in warfare and ensured the protection of its members. The Vedic texts, particularly the Ṛig Veda and Atharva Veda, refer to three assemblies. These were called the sabhā, samiti, and vidhata.

Early Kingdoms and Republics

With the passage of time, the political organisation of Vedic society evolved into territorial entities known as janapadas. The term janapada literally means where a people (jana) first set its feet, indicating a transition from kinship-based identity to territorial identity. This transition happened between approximately 1000 BCE and 600 BCE.

Historical sources for the period usually speak of sixteen mahājanapadas. Among these, Magadha, located in present-day Bihar, gradually emerged as the most powerful. Its strategic location, fertile plains, and strong rulers enabled it to expand its control over neighbouring regions. This expansion eventually led to the rise of the Mauryan Empire, which became one of the largest and most powerful empires in early Indian history.

Duties and Ideals of the King

From the 6th century BCE onwards, rulers came to be known by various titles, such as rājā, mahārāja, or samrāṭ, across different regions, reflecting regional political traditions. Nonetheless, early Indian texts provide important insights into ideas of kingship and governance. For instance, Kauṭilya’s Arthaśhāstra states, “Only if a king is himself energetically active, do his officers follow him energetically.” Further, with reference to the oath of coronation in the Yajur Veda, the king is advised to judge the strong and weak impartially and fairly in addition to protecting the country from all calamities and do good to the people.

The Śhānti Parva of the Mahābhārata provides guidance to rulers on ethical conduct, justice, and the responsibilities of a king towards his subjects. The king was primarily responsible for protecting his subjects from external threats and internal disorder. He was also expected to administer justice in cases, such as abduction, robbery, theft, and adultery. Punishments for serious offences - including the killing of a cow, acts of treachery, and the consumption of intoxicating liquor - were severe and could include harsh penalties, sometimes even capital punishment. While kingship was generally hereditary, there are references to kings being elected or even expelled.

How Were Empires Administered?

Early Indian kingdoms and empires were generally divided into provinces, which were further subdivided into divisions and districts. For instance, the Satavāhana empire comprised āḥāras (administrative divisions), each with its respective ministers (amātyas). Below the āḥāras were villages, each led by a village headman known as grāmika.

While supreme authority rested with the king, the general administration was carried out by officers operating both at provincial and local levels. District governors or pradeśhikas were responsible for judicial and administrative functions.

The period between approximately 300 CE and 800 CE was characterised by the decentralisation of power, as, for administrative convenience, the kingdom (rājya) was divided into several provinces, known as bhuktis in the north and manḍalas or manḍalams in the south. The provinces were further subdivided into divisions - viṣhaya or bhoga in the north and koṭṭams or valanāḍu in the south.

Lower units of administration were the districts - adhiṣhṭhāna or paṭṭana in the north and nāḍu in the south; groups of villages, that is, modern tahsīl, were called vithis in the north and paṭṭalā and kūṛram in southern Indian records. Finally, villages formed the lowest administrative units. To govern various administrative units, a large machinery was developed, consisting of provincial governors and district officers.

Varṇa and Jāti

Early Vedic texts do not indicate any fixed social status strictly based on birth. Instead, it is generally agreed that social identity was shaped by several complex and overlapping factors, including ethnicity, subgroups, geographic region, village affiliation, gotra (a kinship-based subgroup), language, and, especially occupation. While this system distinguished individuals and communities from one another, it also connected them through shared social, economic, and cultural relationships. At this stage, occupations remained flexible and mobile, and the idea of strict hereditary occupations had not yet become firmly established. Evidence of this flexibility is often drawn from a verse of the Ṛig Veda in which the seer refers to occupational diversity within a single family.

The earliest reference to the four social categories, understood by historians as varṇa, appears in the Puruṣhasūkta, a hymn in Book 10 of the Ṛig Veda. Over a period of time, these four social categories (varṇas) came to be associated with specific roles and tasks.

The brāhmaņas were mainly expected to study and teach the Vedas and other sacred texts, perform and officiate yajñas, and give and receive dāna (gifts). Rajanya (Kṣhatriyas) were tasked with warfare, protecting people, and administering justice. They were also expected to study the scriptures, sponsor yajñas, make donations, and uphold social order. Vaiśhyas were associated with economic activities, such as agriculture, pastoralism, and trade, while also participating in scriptural study, sacrificial rituals, and acts of charity. Śhūdras were expected to assist the other varṇas. However, practically, the Śhūdras were also engaged in various economic activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, trade, and arts and crafts.

Gradually, a distinct social structure called jāti emerged due to various factors, including intermarriage among the varṇas, migrating communities becoming endogamous, and territorial differences. While the number of varṇas was fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jātis. As new social groups and occupations developed, the number of jātis continued to grow.

Family and Society

In Vedic society, the kula (family) formed the smallest and the most basic social unit. It was connected to the larger political structure through the village, or grāma, which consisted of several families.

A group of grāmas together formed a viśha, headed by a viśhapati. Above the viśha was the jana, with the rājā serving as the chief protector of the jana, or the people. In this way, the family or kula was inseparable from the jana.