Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation

Class 09 Social Science

The period before the development of writing is understood mainly through archaeological evidence, as written languages emerged at different times in different parts of the world.

One of the earliest known writing systems is associated with the Sindhu–Sarasvatī, also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation or the Harappan Civilisation. Writings and engravings found on objects such as seals and pottery, indicate that the Harappans used a pictographic script for writing. However, it has not yet been deciphered. As a result, we still do not understand the Harappan script, also referred to as Sindhu lipi.

Other early writing systems include the cuneiform script of the Sumerians in Mesopotamia and the hieroglyphic script of ancient Egypt, both of which flourished around the same time as the Harappan Civilisation. Unlike the Harappan script, these scripts have been deciphered and mark the beginning of the historical period, about 5000 years ago.

Early Human History

It is generally agreed that our earliest ancestors evolved and lived in Africa and began to move out of the continent around 2 million years ago. Homo erectus, an early human ancestor with stone tools, such as hand axes and cleavers, was the first hominin to exit Africa. These tools have been found in other parts of Asia and Europe, indicating their origin in Africa and their dispersion beyond the continent between 2 and 0.5 million years ago.

Another major wave of movement out of Africa took place around 125,000 years ago. This exit was associated with the early Homo sapiens, ourselves (modern humans), who also evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and are now spread all over the earth.

Human Ancestors

The earliest human settlements were found in Africa, Asia, and Europe, and together they constitute what we today call the ‘Old World’. Different kinds of human ancestors co-existed at this time, and it was around 3.3 million years ago, that one of these ancestors made the earliest stone tools. This marked the beginning of the so-called ‘human behaviour’, as opposed to the behaviour of animals, who do not possess the cognitive ability to make such tools. Thus, human beings came to be known as ‘hominins’, or tool makers.

The tools they created are sometimes called extra-corporal limbs because they functioned as extensions of the human body, helping people perform tasks they could not accomplish with their hands alone. Humans made these tools, used them, and discarded them when they wore out. Over time, these discarded tools got buried in the upper layers of the earth and were later discovered by archaeologists.

In the same way, the remains of some of our early ancestors were buried deep underground, and over thousands or even millions of years, turned into fossils. The discovery of such tools and fossils are major sources of evidence that helps archaeologists reconstruct human history and understand how our ancestors lived. It is through such findings that we know that the Homo habilis (handy man) lived in Africa, especially in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Kenya. Their successors Homo erectus, the inventors of handaxes and cleavers, were among the first to migrate out of Africa and gradually spread into Europe and Asia. While all human ancestors were tool makers, it was the Homo sapiens that developed complex technologies.

Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherers

The Stone Age is broadly divided into three stages - Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. The word palaeo means ‘old’, and lithic means ‘stone’, so the Palaeolithic period is also known as the Old Stone Age.

In the Indian subcontinent, the oldest human settlement dates back to about 2 million years ago. Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu is dated to about 1.5–1.7 million years ago, and Isampur in Karnataka is dated to 1.2 million years ago. At these sites, animal fossils and large cutting tools, including handaxes and cleavers, and other tools, such as stone scrapers and choppers made of quartzite and limestone, respectively, have been found.

Further progress in hunting and gathering was reflected in the making of smaller stone tools. The main types of stone tools included scrapers, borers, and points. These indicate improved efficiency in hunting by developing projectiles which were tipped with sharp points.

Later, humans invented the bow and arrow, as well as parallel-sided blade and microblade tools made from rocks with glassy texture (very sharp when freshly made).

A distinctive type of stone tool, known as a burin or engraver, was also used to engrave symbolic features on bones and shells (such as ostrich eggs). The microblades were fixed in a handle for ease of use. These developments are associated with our immediate ancestors, Homo sapiens, who gradually spread all over the world, including Australia and the Americas, between 50000 and 12000 years ago.

Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers

Around 12000 years ago, Earth’s climate became warmer, leading to significant changes in the environment. Forests and grasslands expanded into areas that were previously covered by ice sheets. The new landscapes offered a wider variety of resources, including small game animals, fish, and edible wild grains.

Thus, the world witnessed the first-ever population explosion in human history. A variety of microlithic tools enabled the people to gather aquatic food - both marine and freshwater - and fishing was the mainstay of their subsistence economy. Art activity also flourished during this time, and new habitats such as caves and rock shelters were frequently occupied. The World Heritage Site of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh contains hundreds of painted rock shelters with Mesolithic and earlier human occupation.

Neolithic Revolution

As hunter-gatherers gained adequate familiarity with seasons and different types of food resources, there was a gradual transition to a food-producing way of life, also known as the Neolithic revolution. The hallmark of this revolution was the domestication of select animals and plants, bringing them under human control, and the development of new breeds through cultivation and husbandry.

Neolithic Period in Indian Subcontinent

In the northwest, the site of Mehrgarh on the Bolan River (in present-day Pakistan) is the oldest Neolithic site. It was also the earliest agricultural village, dating back to about 7000 BCE. Its people built handmade sun-dried brick houses and granaries, buried their dead in graves, and made a variety of ornaments from semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli, carnelian, and shells. They cultivated wheat and barley, and raised sheep, goats, and Indian cattle - the zebu humped bull in particular

They were also the first to make copper objects, thus entering the metal age and becoming popularly known as the Chalcolithic people by about 4000 BCE. This laid the basis for the Bronze Age Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation around 3500 BCE.

By 2500 BCE, most of the Indian subcontinent was occupied by Neolithic agricultural communities. Cattle, sheep, and goat herding, along with the cultivation of cereals, millets and pulses characterised the Neolithic way of life, sometimes interacting with the contemporary chalcolithic cultures in some parts of the country.

Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation

Introduction of copper tools in the fertile alluvial plains of the Indus and the Ghaggar-Sarasvatī basins enhanced productivity, leading to increased prosperity in these communities. This is also a period of large-scale production of pottery showing diverse regional styles. The regional styles in pottery and craft production became more evident in the early Chalcolithic sites of Baluchistan and the Indus and Ghaggar-Sarasvatī basins from 4000 BCE onwards.

The Harappans were not merely agriculturists; they also practised a number of arts and crafts, and pottery was one of the major craft products that boosted their economy. Pottery remains from different regions show unique styles in the shapes of vessels and their painted designs. Some other crafts that show gradual development include copper work, shell work, and the production of semi-precious stone beads. Evidence of Early Harappan bead production is found from Harappa in Pakistan as well as from Kunal in Haryana and Datrana in Gujarat.

Mesopotamian Civilisation

The earliest city-based civilisation emerged in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia, meaning the “land in between,” is the Greek name for the land drained by the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in West Asia.

In modern times, this region includes mainly Iraq and Kuwait, with some parts of Turkey and southwestern Iran. The crescent-shaped foothills of the Zagros and Taurus, stretching from the Mediterranean in the west to the Persian Gulf in the east, are known as the ‘fertile crescent’, due to their high agricultural potential.

While farming began in this region 12000 years before present, copper tools arrived here around 4500 BCE. The arrival of copper helped improve agriculture and other economic activities, such as craft production and trade. This eventually contributed to the broader dissemination of farming across the vast plains of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.

Over the next 2000 years, some large cities became ‘city-states’ by developing governing systems. Among these, the four major city-based civilisations that flourished from 3500 BCE onwards in Mesopotamia are the Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian.

Egyptian Civilisation

Egyptian civilisation is one of the earliest civilisations of the world, known for its rich historical records and lasting influence on other civilisations. Egyptian history is also reconstructed from papyrus or old paper records. These documents preserve both stories and practical details, offering a window into how Egyptians understood the world.

Egypt saw the emergence of city-states around 3000 BCE as population increased and resources became available. The river Nile watered the land along its banks, and every summer the river flooded, leading to annual inundations, with rich mud, ‘kemet’, excellent for growing crops.

About 5000 years ago, farmers discovered that by digging ditches they could divert water from the Nile into their fields and store water in reservoirs for later use. By counting the days between Nile floods, the Egyptians developed a calendar.

The need to dig ditches and construct dams required collective effort. These early cooperative efforts must have led to the growth of local government, accompanied by the rise of the administrative class, probably making up the earliest form of local government in Egypt.

Over time, powerful individuals called ‘Pharaohs’ emerged as the rulers of Egypt. After their death, these pharaohs were buried deep underground and a rectangular structure called a mastaba was placed over the burial chamber. Gradually, these mastabas were placed one on top of the other to form a pyramid.

Chinese Civilisation

The Chinese civilisation flourished along the rivers - the Huang He (Yellow River) and the Yangtze. These two river valleys were also centres of early Chinese Neolithic cultures dating to around 7000 BCE.

Around 2000 BCE, the introduction of copper/bronze metallurgy brought many of the Neolithic settlements, especially those in the Yellow River basin, to the threshold of the Bronze Age. However, it was only around 1600 BCE that urban centres began to emerge with the expansion of agricultural productivity and advancements in metallurgy and craft production. These events led to the rise of the first Chinese Bronze Age territorial empire.

The history of China is organised into various dynasties, the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE) and the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) were two well-known dynasties of the Bronze Age. By 600 BCE, the use of iron became popular throughout China, and the Chinese Iron Age generally dates from this period onwards. The name ‘China’ probably comes from the Iron Age Qin (Ch’in) dynasty (221-206 BCE), also known as the first imperial dynasty of China, which is credited for unifying the country. Another important Chinese dynasty of the Iron Age was the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE).