Bricks, Beads and Bones: Harappan Civilisation

Class 12 History

There were several archaeological cultures in the region prior to the Mature Harappan. These cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts. Settlements were generally small, and there were virtually no large buildings.

The recent archaeological evidences also indicate the emergence of Harappan culture from early farming communities dated around 7000 BCE. The urban phase (Mature Harappan) was a consequent result of the gradual transformation and internal development of the civilisation during the early Harappan phase.

Subsistence Strategies

The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish. A rchaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains and seeds.

Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. Millets are found from sites in Gujarat. Finds of rice are relatively rare.

Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. Studies done by archaeo-zoologists or zoo- archaeologists indicate that these animals were domesticated. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.

Agricultural technologies

While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices.

Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Moreover, terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana). Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan).

Mohanjodaro

Perhaps the most unique feature of the Harappan civilisation was the development of urban centres. Although Mohenjodaro is the most well-known site, the first site to be discovered was Harappa.

The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher and the other much larger but lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel and the Lower Town respectively.

Laying out drains

One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them.

Domestic architecture

The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings. Many were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather.

Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains. Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by.

The Citadel

It is on the Citadel that we find evidence of structures that were probably used for special public purposes. These include the warehouse - a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain, while the upper portions, probably of wood, decayed long ago - and the Great Bath.

Social Differences

Burials

At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made – in some instances, the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks.

Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women.

Craft Production

Chanhudaro was almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.

The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some of stone with gold caps. The shapes were numerous – disc- shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented. Some were decorated by incising or painting, and some had designs etched onto them.

Seals, Script, Weights

Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long- distance communication. Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and title of the owner.

Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert and generally cubical, with no markings.

End of the Civilisation

There is evidence that by 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.