The Rise of Empires

Class 07 Social Science

The word ‘empire’ comes from the Latin ‘imperium’, which means ‘supreme power’. An empire is a collection of smaller kingdoms or territories over which a powerful ruler or group of rulers exert power, often after waging war against the smaller kingdoms.

Trade, Trade Routes and Guilds

Conducting military campaigns, especially in distant lands, is not simple. Maintaining an army is a costly affair: soldiers need to be fed, clothed, equipped with weapons, and paid; elephants and horses need to be cared for; roads or ships have to be built, and so on. All this requires considerable economic power, control over the workforce, and access to resources.

Economic activity, especially production and trade, is one of the keys to maintaining an empire and ensuring people’s welfare and quality of life, which a good ruler should be concerned with. Therefore, establishing and controlling trade routes all over the empire’s territory and beyond is of great importance. That way, the goods traded will grow in quantity and variety, and more trade means more income for the producers and increased tax collections for the ruler.

Textiles, spices, agricultural produce, luxury items such as gems and handicraft products, and various animals were among the main items of trade.

Traders were not just isolated individuals carrying out their own business. They soon understood the benefits of joining forces and creating guilds (śhrenīs). Guilds were powerful associations of traders, craftsmen, moneylenders or agriculturists. A guild had a head (who was usually elected) and executive officers who were supposed to have all kinds of ethical qualities.

Magadha

The period between the 6th and the 4th century BCE was one of profound change in north India. One of the sixteen mahājanapadas, Magadha (modern-day south Bihar and some adjoining areas), rose in importance and set the stage for the fusion of many kingdoms into India’s first empire. Powerful early kings, such as Ajātaśhatru, played a crucial role in establishing Magadha as a dominant centre of power.

Magadha was located in the resource-rich Ganga plains, with fertile land, abundant forests for timber, and elephants. Iron ore and other minerals from the nearby hilly regions proved crucial for the expansion of the kingdom. The use of iron ploughs to till the land increased agricultural produce, and lighter and sharper iron weapons strengthened the capabilities of the army.

The production of surplus food grains allowed more people to focus on the arts and crafts, which were in demand inside and outside the empire’s borders. The Ganga and Son rivers provided a geographical advantage for trade, as they could be used for transportation. The flourishing Mahāpadma Nanda trade boosted the empire’s income and contributed to Magadha’s rise.

Around the 5th century BCE, Mahāpadma Nanda rose to prominence in Magadha and founded the Nanda dynasty. He successfully unified many smaller kingdoms and extended his empire across parts of eastern and northern India. As the economy thrived, he began issuing coins, demonstrating his economic power.

Its last emperor, Dhana Nanda, though very rich, became highly unpopular as he oppressed and exploited his people. This paved the way for the Nanda empire to be conquered and absorbed into what would become one of the largest empires India ever knew - the Maurya empire.

Mauryas

Around 321 BCE, just a few years after Alexander left India with his army, a new dynasty and new empire emerged: the Maurya Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya. It quickly absorbed the Nanda empire’s territories and went on expanding beyond.

Chandragupta managed this feat with the help of an able mentor named Kauṭilya, who used his knowledge of politics, governance and economics to create an empire that remains one of the greatest in Indian history.

The story of Kauṭilya

According to Buddhist texts, Kauṭilya, sometimes referred to as Chāṇakya or Viṣhnugupta, was a teacher at the world-renowned Takṣhaśhila (modern-day Taxila) university. His legendary tale begins in the court of Dhana Nanda, who had become highly unpopular. Observing this, Kauṭilya advised Dhana Nanda to change his ways or witness the collapse of his empire. Angered, Dhana Nanda insulted Kauṭilya and threw him out of his court. This led to Kauṭilya’s vow to end the ‘evil Nanda’ rule.

The rise of Chandragupta Maurya

He overthrew the Nandas and took control of Magadha to establish his rule, with Pāṭaliputra as his capital. He defeated the Greek satraps left behind by Alexander in the northwest and integrated the region into an empire that stretched from the northern plains to the Deccan plateau.

After Chandragupta Maurya defeated the Greeks, he maintained a diplomatic relationship with them and hosted in his court a Greek historian and diplomat, Megasthenes, who wrote about his travels in India in his book Indika.

Kauṭilya’s Concept of a Kingdom

Kauṭilya had a clear vision of how a kingdom (rājya) should be established, managed and consolidated. In his famous work Arthaśhāstra, he listed directives in many areas like defence, economics, administration, justice, urban planning, agriculture and people’s welfare. One of his most important political concepts is the saptānga or the seven parts that constitute a kingdom.

According to Kauṭilya, the saptānga together must create a settled, well-protected, and prosperous kingdom to be maintained both through warfare and through alliances for peace, as the case may be. He emphasised the importance of law and order in society, which necessitated a strong administration. He also detailed many laws to deal with corruption and specified punishments for any activities that went against the wellbeing of the people.

Aśhoka (268 - 232 BCE)

Another king of the Maurya dynasty was Aśhoka, Chandragupta’s grandson. At the beginning of his reign, Aśhoka was quite ambitious. He had inherited a vast empire but further expanded it to cover almost the entirety of the Indian subcontinent, except for the southernmost region, but including present-day Bangladesh and Pakistan and parts of present-day Afghanistan.

However, one encounter changed the path of his life. He once marched on Kalinga (modern-day Odisha), where he waged a ferocious war. Seeing the enormous amount of death and destruction on the battlefield, Aśhoka chose to give up violence and adopt the path of peace and non-violence that the Buddha taught.

Embracing Buddhist teachings, Aśhoka sent emissaries to Sri Lanka, Thailand, Central Asia and beyond to spread the message of the Buddha far and wide.

Ashoka issued in many parts of his empire edicts engraved on rocks or pillars that contained his messages for the people and encouraged them to follow dharma. Most of these edicts were inscribed in Prakrit, which was the popular language in many parts of India and written in the Brahmi script. In his edicts, Aśhoka called himself ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’. The first word means ‘Beloved of the Gods’; the second, ‘one who regards others with kindness’.

The Maurya empire continued for half a century after Aśhoka’s death. However, his successors were unable to hold the empire together, and many of the smaller kingdoms broke off and became independent. Around 185 BCE, India started on another phase of her journey.

Life in the Mauryan Period

Cities like Pāṭaliputra were bustling centres of governance and commerce. They had palaces, public buildings, and well-planned streets. With a well-organised taxation system and brisk trade, the treasury remained strong, fuelling the empire’s growth and prosperity. Officials of the administration of the empire, merchants and artisans played key roles in the city life.

A substantial proportion of the population was engaged in agriculture, which was an important source of revenue for the empire. Two crops were sown in a year, as rain fell in both summer and winter. This ensured that famines were rare and people had ample food. Granaries were well stocked for any eventualities. Even if war raged nearby, farmers were protected from it, and agriculture was not disturbed.

Blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, jewellers and other artisans lived in the cities. The cities were well-planned and had signage on the streets. Communication happened through couriers who carried messages from place to place. The houses were made of wood and could be up to two storeys tall. The streets had vessels of water stored at regular intervals in case of fire.