The Age of Reorganisation

Class 07 Social Science

The last Maurya emperor was assassinated around 185 BCE by his commander-in-chief Puṣhyamitra Śhunga. This led to a breakup of the empire - hardly half a century after Aśhoka.

Many new kingdoms emerged across the subcontinent, which were earlier tributary kingdoms under the Maurya empire. The northwest region became weak, exposing it to invasions from outside the subcontinent. This period is also known as the ‘age of reorganisation’ as the existing regions were being reorganised into new kingdoms that were constantly competing to become powerful. The map of India changed significantly in that age, as did people’s lives.

The ‘new’ kingdoms now competed for territorial control. Peaceful methods like matrimonial alliances between neighbouring kingdoms, or the use of force in warfare, were means of gaining control. Together with those political events, there was a burst in the development of art, architecture and literature, and enriching cultural exchanges.

Śhungas

Puṣhyamitra Śhunga founded the Śhunga dynasty, which ruled over parts of north and central India. He performed the aśhvamedha yajña, a Vedic ritual, to establish himself as a most powerful ruler. Although his empire was smaller than the previous Maurya Empire, he kept it safe from potential invaders and maintained friendly relations with the Greeks, after some initial military campaign against them. But, the empire did not last long after him - a century later, it was gone.

The period witnessed the revival of Vedic rituals and practices, but other schools of thought nevertheless continued to flourish. Sanskrit emerged as one of the preferred languages for philosophical and literary works.

The Śhungas patronised literature, art and architecture. The Bharhut Stūpa (in present-day Madhya Pradesh) is beautiful examples of Śhunga art. It was probably built during the time of Ashoka, but the Śhungas added beautifully carved railings and reliefs depicting stories from the Buddha’s life. These are considered some of the earliest examples of Buddhist art.

Sātavāhanas

The Śhungas seem to have waged wars with many of their neighbouring regions. This may have included the Sātavāhanas, who ruled large parts of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE onward, to the south of the Śhunga Empire. Sometimes referred to as ‘Andhras’, the Sātavāhanas were a powerful dynasty and their empire largely comprised of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra, with different capital cities at different times - the most famous were Amrāvatī and Pratiṣhṭhāna (Paithan). Trade and commerce appear to have flourished in the Sātavāhana kingdom.

Coins issued by the Sātavāhana rulers have been found in various regions of India, from Gujarat to Andhra Pradesh - India’s western and eastern coasts. Many coins depicted ships, suggesting that maritime trade was an important part of economic life. Agriculture flourished in the Krishna-Godavari river system, which provided economic stability to the kingdom.

The Sātavāhanas had active trade networks that reached as far as the Roman Empire and included an exchange of goods like spices, textiles, sandalwood, and luxury items like gold-plated pearls, ivory, etc. Imports included glass and perfumed ointments. Tolls and taxes on trade added revenue to the kingdom.

Economic prosperity and a relatively peaceful political period facilitated the development of literature, art and culture, to which the Sātavāhanas made significant contributions.

Life under the Sātavāhanas

In the Sātavāhana tradition, princes were often named after their mothers. Thus Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi was named after his mother, Gautamī Balaśhrī. She was a powerful queen who donated land to Buddhist monks and had an important inscription carved in Nāśhik, showing her influence in the kingdom.

The Sātavāhanas were devout followers of Vāsudeva (another name for Kṛiṣhṇa), although they also patronised other schools of thought, which flourished during their rule. For example, Sātavāhana kings often granted tax-free agricultural land to Vedic scholars, Jaina and Buddhist monks, helping them to pursue their studies and practices.

In the 3rd century CE, the Sātavāhana Empire fragmented into smaller independent kingdoms. Several factors contributed to its disintegration, the most significant one being weak central control and a gradual economic decline.

Chedis

After the decline of the Maurya Empire, Kalinga rose as a prominent power under the kings of the Chedi dynasty.

Khāravela, one of their main rulers, was a devoted follower of Jain teachings. He was sometimes called bhikṣhu-rāja or monk-king, although he respected all schools of thoughts. Near Bhubaneswar, the famous Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves, likely developed for Jain monks, feature intricate panels and statues, and spacious rooms carved into the rock, showcasing the skill of the craftsmen. The design and craftsmanship of these caves make them notable examples of ‘rock-cut architecture’.

One of the caves prominently displays the Hāthīgumphā inscription, written in Brahmi script, which records King
Khāravela’s accomplishments year after year, including his victorious military campaigns and his benevolent works for the welfare of his people.

Kingdoms and Life in the South

In India’s southern region, this period, between the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, saw the rise to prominence of three powerful kingdoms - the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pānḍyas - which often competed with each other for control over the South, while also contributing to the region’s growth in trade and culture.

That period saw the advent of many poets whose works, collectively known as ‘Sangam literature’, defined the entire era: it came to be known as the ‘Sangam Age’.

The Cholas

The Cholas were a powerful dynasty that ruled parts of south India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. The Chola king Karikāla is said to have defeated a combined force of the Cheras and Pānḍyas and established his supremacy.

Karikāla undertook many projects for the benefit of the people. Among them is the Kallaṇai or Grand Anicut, a complex water diversion system located at a geographically strategic point just downstream of the Srirangam island. It helped to divert waters from the Kāveri to the central and southern parts of the Kāveri delta. This enabled more land to be brought under cultivation, earning this area the name ‘rice bowl of the South’. Restored several times in the course of time, it is still in use and helps millions of people in Tamil Nadu by providing water for irrigation and thus supporting agriculture in the region.

The Cheras

Also known as the Keralaputra (sons of Kerala), the Cheras ruled over the western parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with their capital at Vanji, present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu. They played an essential role in shaping the region’s cultural and economic history, encouraging the growth of Tamil literature and patronising Sangam poets.

The Cheras were known for their extensive trade connections with the Roman Empire and West Asia, exporting many goods from India to the outside world. The kingdom became a hub for the export of spices, timber, ivory and pearls.

The Pānḍyas

The Pānḍyas’ rule over parts of Tamil Nadu and the surrounding regions, with their capital at present-day Madurai, goes back several centuries BCE. Successive kings expanded the Pāndyan kingdom. In his work Indika, Megasthenes mentions this kingdom as a prosperous one, with a strong administration and involved in active trade with distant powers like the Greeks and Romans, apart from much internal trade.

The Pānḍyas were also an important naval power of the subcontinent. The later Pānḍyas also contributed greatly to the art, architecture, and overall prosperity of the region. The Pānḍyas left many inscriptions in which their kings asserted their great concern for their subjects’ welfare and their encouragements to all schools of thought and belief.

Invasions of the Indo-Greeks

The same period also witnessed the arrival of invaders who entered through the northwest frontier and took control of the northwestern, northern, and central regions of the Subcontinent.

After the decline of the Mauryas, the areas in the northwestern regions (roughly present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) were an easy target for the Indo-Greeks. However, while they arrived as conquerors, they were much influenced by the rich local culture. This cultural interaction led to a blend of Greek and Indian elements in governance, art, language, and daily life, shaping the cultural landscape of the region.

The Heliodorus pillar, near Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh), is a example of such connections. It is named after an Indo-Greek ambassador, who in his inscription praises Vāsudeva as the ‘god of gods’.

During excavations in north India, archaeologists have found many Indo-Greeks coins, which have provided most of the information we have about these rulers. Those coins were made of gold, silver, copper and nickel often portraying a king on one side and Greek deities on the other. However, some coins, instead, depicted Indian deities like Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmī. The rule of the Indo-Greeks ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians or Śhakas.

Kuṣhāṇas

The Kuṣhāṇas, originally from central Asia, entered India probably in the 2nd century CE. At its peak, their empire extended from central Asia to large parts of northern India. Their rule marked a period of extensive cultural intermixing and had a profound impact on the history of the Indian subcontinent.

When he was not busy with his military campaigns, Kaṇiṣhka encouraged art and culture, leading to the development of new artistic styles. This famous ‘headless’ statue is of King Kaṇiṣhka, probably the most powerful ruler of the Kuṣhāṇa dynasty.

The Kuṣhāṇas held control over significant sections of the Silk Route, and during their reign, trade grew, connecting India with other parts of Asia and the West.