With the decline of feudalism, the restrictions on peasants become a thing of the past. Simultaneously, the period witnessed the rise of powerful merchant class, which financed discoveries of new lands. These, with other factors, brought about the Industrial revolution which led a sea change throughout the world. This was the beginning of the Modern Age.
Renaissance
From the 14th century onwards, Europe witnessed many profound changes in its cultural and intellectual life that helped to usher in the modern period. This was the Renaissance, the awakening, that encouraged thinking and reasoning in social and political fields and affected every aspect of life.
Discovery of trade routes, brought goods that enriched the lives of Europeans. New ideas were generated in this period like humanism, rationalism and the spirit of inquiry.
The Renaissance spirit also marks the rise of Nationalism in Europe. People now began to free themselves of medieval religious restrictions and bonds. National identities grew stronger.
Reformation
Two major developments took place in the history of Europe towards the later part of the Renaissance. The first was the Protestant Reformation which resulted in the split in Christianity. The second development concerned reforms within the Roman Catholic Church, generally referred to as Catholic Reformation or Counter Reformation.
Protestant Reformation
The Medieval Catholic Church came to be associated with superstitions and greed for money. It was in 1517 AD that in the West the Christian world was divided into two sects, the Protestants and the Roman Catholics. In 1517 AD, a German priest called Martin Luther first challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. According to him, the Bible was the only source of religious authority. He believed that salvation could be attained through faith in Jesus Christ instead of having blind faith on the Church.
Counter Reformation
A Reform Movement also took place within the Catholic Church. It aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic Church. It began in Spain where Ignatious Loyal founded the ‘Society of Jesus’ which stressed upon service of God, charity, chastity and missionary work.
Development of Science
Renaissance scientists paved the way for observation and experimentation in all fields of knowledge. One of the most remarkable achievements of the Renaissance period in science was in the field of astronomy.
Before the Renaissance, it was believed that the Sun revolved around the Earth. Copernicus argued that the earth and the planets move around the sun in concentric circles. Even though the theory was imperfect, it aroused thinking and reasoning. Kepler further developed this theory and said that the other planets move in elliptical paths around the sun. He also argued that magnetic attractions between the Sun and the planets kept the heavenly bodies in an orbital motion. Further on this assumption, Isaac Newton developed his Law of Universal Gravitation. With his self manufactured telescope, Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn and spots in the Sun.
Discovery of New Lands
Before the geographical discoveries, Europeans obtained articles like spices, cotton, precious gems, silk, etc. from the Eastern part of the world. They travelled through the Arabic and Islamic territories for the supply of these articles. This was not very convenient and also posed uncertainties. So a direct sea route to South East Asia was discovered as it had a potential of a lucrative trade. The explorers also had another motive, which was to convert the people of the newly found areas to Christianity. In addition, the adventurers also hoped to acquire fame by discovering new lands.
The new Trade routes that were discovered changed the history of the world. Direct sea routes to South Asia and South East Asia were discovered. Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India via Cape of Good Hope and Columbus who had set out for India reached America both being discoveries for Europeans.
These voyages led to the establishment of trading outpost and colonial empires in different parts Africa, America and Asia. Now commercial focus shifted from Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Many new commodities were added to trade such as tobacco, molasses, ostrich feathers, potato, etc. It also started the inhuman slave trade in America. Slaves were captured from Africa, transported across the Atlantic Ocean and sold to work in plantations in North America.
These trade practices and new sea routes helped the European merchants to accumulate huge wealth which they invested in the development of new machines. This led to the coming of the Industrial Revolution which made them more powerful and wealthy.
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution began in England from about 1750 AD. This was possible because English merchants had accumulated huge wealth through overseas trade and her colonies secured the supply of raw materials. The colonies also acted as potential markets for finished goods. Moreover, England had huge amount of essential resources such as coal and iron which were necessary for running the industries. Thus, the capitalists invested in the development of new machines to speed up the production with the aim of earning more profits.
The new developments like the coming in of new machineries to improve production led to unequal classes - the rich and the poor.
Age of Revolutions
There was a very strong dissatisfaction with political leadership and people started demanding more participation in the affairs of the State. Political awareness, ideas like liberty, equality and fraternity were popularised by the printing press. The revolutions which were most important occurred in America, France, Germany, Italy and Russia.
Britain had already faced a major change with the Glorious Revolution. The United States of America was born after the American War of Independence and Russia experienced a workers’ movement which led to the establishment of a socialist government. These upheavals were accompanied by a feeling of nationalism amongst the population of many states which had been encouraged by enlightened ideas.