The rulers who ruled substantial parts of the North India between AD 1200 to AD 1526 were termed as Sultans and the period of their rule was known as the Delhi Sultanate. These were the Mamluks who were popularly known as the slave dynasty, the Khaljis, the Tughlaqs, the Sayyids and the Lodis.
Arab Invasion of India
Arab invasion in AD 712 was led by Muhammad Bin Qasim. The reason for the invasion of Sindh was to avenge the plunder of Arab Ships by pirates of Debol. King Dahir refused to punish the pirates. Muhammad Bin Qasim arrived in Sind in AD 712, and besieged Debol. He conquered various important places in Sind including Brahmanabad.
First Battle of Tarain (AD 1191)
The conflict started with claims of Bhatinda. Muhammad Ghori's army was routed and he narrowly escaped death. Prithviraj conquered Bhatinda.
Second Battle of Tarain (AD 1192)
This battle is regarded as one of the turning points in Indian History. The Turkish cavalry was using two superior techniques. The first was the horse shoe and the second was, the use of iron stirrup.
A large number of Indian soldiers were killed. Prithviraj tried to escape but was captured near Sarsuti. The Turkish army captured the fortresses of Hansi, Sarsuti and Samana. After Tarain, Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni, leaving the affairs of India in the hand of his trusted slave general Qutbuddin Aibak.
Muhammad Ghori gave a crushing defeat to Jai Chand at Chandwar near Kanauj. Battle of Tarain and Chandwar laid the foundations of Turkish rule in Northern India.
Mamluk Sultans or the slave dynasty (AD 1206 to 1290)
- Qutbuddin Aibak (AD 1206 - 1210)
- Iltutmish (AD 1210 - 1236)
- Raziya (AD 1236 - 1240)
- Nasiruddin Mahmud (AD 1246 - 1266)
- Balban (AD 1266 - 1287)
Expansion of Delhi Sultanate
Alauddin first began his territorial conquest with a campaign against Gujarat. After the annexation of Gujarat, Alauddin turned his attention towards Rajasthan. Ranthambore was the first target. In AD 1303, Alauddin besieged Chittor, another powerful state of Rajputana.
By AD 1311, Alauddin had completed the conquest of large parts of Rajputana and became the master of North India. After AD 1309 Malik Kafur was dispatched to launch campaign in South India. Alauddin’s forces under Malik Kafur continued to maintain a control over the Deccan kingdoms.
Tughlaqs
The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghazi Malik who ascended the throne as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in AD 1320 and this dynasty ruled till AD 1412.
Sayyid Dynasty
Khizr Khan defeated Sultan Daulat Khan and occupied Delhi and founded Sayyid dynasty.
Mughal Empire
The Mughals were led by an able military commander and administrator from Central Asia named Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur. His successors were successful in establishing an all-India empire gradually.
Babur traced his linage from Timur the great conqueror of Central Asia and to Chengiz Khan the distinguished conqueror. The unstable political situation in India after Sikandar Lodi’s death convinced him of political discontentment and disorder in the Lodi Empire.
Meanwhile there was conflict between some Afghan chiefs with Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat Khan Lodi, the Governor of Punjab and Rajput king of Mewar Rana Sanga sent word to Babur to invade India. Babur was successful in capturing Bhira (1519 - 1520), Sialkot (1520) and Lahore (1524) in Punjab. Finally, Ibrahim Lodi and Babur’s forces met at Panipat in 1526. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated in the battle of Panipat.
Babur was thus able to take control of Delhi and Agra and got the rich treasure of Lodis. Babur sent his son Humayun to face the eastern Afghans. The forces of Babur and Rana Sanga met at Khanwa, Rana Sanga was defeated in 1527. These victories were a step forward in the direction of the establishment of Mughal empire.
Humayun
After Babur’s death in 1530 his son Humayun succeeded him. When Humayun was busy in Gujarat, Sher Shah started consolidating himself in Bihar and Bengal and moved towards Agra. Humayun was defeated in the battle of Kannauj in 1540 and Sher Shah was able to establish the second Afghan empire which continued from 1540 to 1555.
However, in 1555 Humayun was again successful in capturing Agra, Delhi and other lost territories from the Afghans and re-established the Mughal rule.
Akbar
After Humayun’s sudden death Akbar became the emperor at a tender age of 13 and Bairam Khan was made the regent. Akbar followed a policy of expansion after consolidating his hold on throne.
He won over the Rajput kingdoms to his side either through matrimonial alliances or by invading the territories. He brought Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Punjab and the whole of northwest under the Mughal control. He also annexed Ahmednagar, Berar, Burhanpur, Asisgarh in the Deccan.
Jahangir
Jahangir also followed the expansionist policy in the Deccan. But he could not get much success here and lost few of the territories.
Shahjahan
Shahjahan was able to take control of Bijapur and Golconda in 1636.
Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb also followed an aggressive policy in the Deccan and remained involved in conflict with the Marathas for most of his rule. Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire reached its greatest territorial limits.
Ironically, the decline of the Mughal empire also began under Aurangzeb. There was a break up of the association with regional forces like the Rajputs and the Marathas.
Political Institutions
Due to the large extent of the empire the administrative system emerged at three levels i.e. central, provincial and local. The local level administration was left mainly in the hands of village headmen, etc.
At provincial level, the administration was carried out through the institution of Iqta during the sultanate period and through the institution of mansab and jagir during the Mughal period. At the central level the sultan or the emperor had his own system of administration and there were many officers to assist him.
Economy
Agriculture formed the occupation of the bulk of the people. An increase in agricultural production was sought through expansion of agriculture in newer areas. The peasants produced a large variety of food crops, cash crops, fruits, vegetables and spices.
The state derived the largest part of its income from land revenue. The land revenue administration was streamlined and elaborately developed as a result of some of the pioneering efforts made in this field by rulers like Alauddin Khalji, Sher Shah Suri and Akbar.
Textile, mining and metallurgy, ship-building, construction works, arms and armour manufacturing, were some of the prominent crafts practised during this period. Craft production was organised at various levels of village, towns and the state, wherein state owned artisanal workshops (royal Karkhanas) produced commodities for the consumption of the ruling elite.
In the field of commerce India had trade links with contemporary central Asia, China, South-east Asia and Europe. The European trading companies viz., the Portuguese, English, Dutch and French, and their participation in the Indian, Intra-Asian, and Euro-Asian trade influenced Indian commence.
Culture and Religious Life
The Medieval period witnessed a great synthesis of traditions in culture and religion. The Bhakti movement and Sufism in religious sphere.
Language, literature, art, architecture music and dance also bore out this trend of synthesis between different traditions.
Under the Mughals, painting was organised in the royal karkhanas and painters were on government payroll.
Another fascinating aspect of cultural life in medieval India is reflected in its Indo-Islamic architecture, new features like the arch and the dome were combined with the use of Hindu motifs like bell, lotus swastika, and kalash or water pot.
The Bhakti and Sufi tradition also gave an inputs to new devotional styles of music.