There was a very strong dissatisfaction with political leadership and people started demanding more participation in the affairs of the State. Political awareness, ideas like liberty, equality and fraternity were popularised by the printing press.
The Glorious Revolution, 1688
The Glorious Revolution of 1688 occurred in England much before the Age of Revolutions and became a source of inspiration for the world. It was called the Glorious Revolution because no blood was shed to achieve its success.
The Stuart king James II lost the popular support of his countrymen. This was due to his harsh attitude towards the people. The creation of an expensive standing army and increasing employment of Roman Catholics in the government, army and universities had angered the people. The Parliament removed King James II from the throne in favor of his daughter Mary II and her husband William III, Prince of Orange. The autocratic rule of James II was replaced with a constitutional form of government. It showed that the Parliament had the power to change the monarch.
American War of Independence
Around the 16th century, many Europeans had settled in America because of religious persecution in England. Some of them were also attracted by economic opportunities. They had formed 13 colonies which had local assemblies to settle their problems. These colonies were suffering due to the British economic policy of mercantilism through which they tried to regulate colonial commerce in the British interest.
By the 18th century, the wars with France and in India were proving very expensive for Britain. She needed money to fight these wars, and this was done by collecting taxes from the American colonies. In 1765, the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act on all business transactions. The revenue was used to pay the cost of maintaining British troops in America. The Act was opposed by the colonists. Riots broke out in colonial port cities. The colonial assemblies passed resolutions against the Stamp Act. The British Parliament had to repeal the Stamp Act in 1766. However, the Parliament continued the tax on tea.
On 16 December, 1773 some Americans disguised as Native Indians descended upon the three ships of East India Company and dumped the tea, being carried in them, into the sea. This came to be called the Boston Tea Party.
This led to fights and finally to the Declaration of Independence on July 1776 at a Congress at Philadelphia.
French Revolution
In the 18th century, the French society was divided into three classes or estates. The first Estate was that of clergy or priests working in the Church. The second Estate of Nobility enjoyed all the luxuries and many privileges related to religion and the governance of the country. The Third Estate of Commoners such as peasantry, city workers and the middle class were heavily burdened with taxes.
The Third Estate demanded equality in taxation and abolition of special privileges enjoyed by the first two estates. It declared itself a National Assembly and took over the sovereign power from the Emperor. The historic French document, ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen’ was adopted. It was later embodied as the preamble in the French Constitution of 1791.
The French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars starting from 1789 and lasting for about 15 years resulted in the formation of the French Republic. The French Revolution tore down the medieval structures of Europe and brought in new ideas of liberalism and nationalism. France witnessed a complete change in the government, administration, military, society and culture.
Unification of Italy
In the 18th century, Italy was a collection of small states, each having its own monarch and traditions.
After France became a republic, secret clubs favouring an Italian Republic were formed throughout Italy. Many revolutionaries like Mazzini and Garibaldi along with some secret societies kept spreading the idea of an independent unified republic among the Italians. From 1849 onwards, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia which was a monarchy under Victor Emmanuel took an active role in this unification.
The process of unification of Italy began with the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and ended with the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.
Unification of Germany
After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, many Germans wanted an independent Germany. Germany was a confederation of 39 small states, led by Austria and Prussia. These states were always at war with one another, deterring the economic progress of Germany.
The King of Prussia, Kaiser William I, chose Bismarck as Prime Minister to unify Germany under the rule of Prussia, excluding Austria and France completely.
Socialist Movement and the Russian Revolution
The Industrial Revolution had led to an unequal society. The industrial workers were poverty-stricken and lived in very bad conditions. In contrast, the industrialist were rich and lived in luxury.
The workers got united and the idea of Socialism, which tries to establish equal society, began to take roots. The first country where the idea of socialism took deep roots was Russia leading to the Russian Revolution. This resulted in the establishment of the first socialist government of the world.
Russia was industrially backward and was based on an agrarian economy. Tsar was an autocratic and oppressive ruler; hence the workers and the peasants suffered a lot. The Revolution of 1905 led to the formation of a constitutional monarchy with the formation of the Duma; the members of whom were representatives of peasants, townsmen and gentry. Even after the 1905 of Revolution, the civil rights and democratic representation was limited and hence the unrest continued.
In 1917, occurred another revolution in Russia. It happened because the condition of the Russian workers and peasants, and non Russians living in Russia had become quite miserable under the autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas II. There was widespread unrest among all sections of society.
This situation was further worsened by the writings of Marx and Tolstoy which influenced the people, especially the workers, and led to their political awakening. This led to the formation of the Council of Workers called the Soviets. In February 1917, Tsar was deposed and a Provisional Government was established under the control of the Menshevik Party. But the Government failed to fulfill the demands of the people. Another Party called the Bolshevik headed by Lenin organised the Soviets and replaced the Government in October 1917. This October Revolution was the final stage of the Russian Revolution. It brought to an end the rule of the Tsar and led to the formation of the USSR and a new world order.